15.2.4.1.2.2. Floods
Floods also may become more frequent (see Section 15.2.1.3).
All rivers are susceptible to flooding, and nearby populations are potentially
vulnerable. In the United States, floods are the most frequent natural disaster,
as well as the leading cause of death from natural disasters. The mean annual
loss of life is estimated to be 146 deaths yr-1 (National
Weather Service, 1992; Patz et al., 2000). In 1997, the Canadian Red
River flood displaced more than 25,000 people (Francis and Hengeveld, 1998;
Manitoba Water Commission, 1998).
During a flood, disaster relief workers may be at risk of injury. For example,
119 injuries were identified from medical claims of people engaged in sandbagging
activities in the 1993 Midwest floods. Heat-related injury or illness (HRI),
which occurs when the body can no longer maintain a healthy core temperature,
was the most frequently reported injury diagnosis; a total of 23 HRI (19.3%
of the 119 total injuries) were reported (Dellinger et al., 1996). HRI
therefore is a potential problem in disaster relief situations, particularly
if high ambient temperature and high humidity exist. Following a flood, flood
victims may be at risk of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression,
which are risk factors for suicide. Krug et al. (1998) showed that suicide
rates increased from 12.1 to 13.8 per 100,000 population in the 4 years after
floods. Inundations of sites that contain toxic wastes, sewage, animal wastes,
or agrochemical products may result in immediate human exposure to wastes from
floodwaters, contamination of edible fish, and long-term contamination of flooded
living structures (see Sections 15.2.1.3 and 15.2.4.2.2.2).
15.2.4.1.2.3. Hurricanes
Climate models currently are unable to project accurately how hurricanes will
change in the future. Today, an average of two hurricanes make landfall each
year along the coastline of the continental United States (Hebert et al.,
1993). There has been considerable interdecadal variability in the number of
landfalling hurricanes in the United States (Pielke and Pielke, 1997). The Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) declared fewer than 20 natural disasters
annually in the 1950s and 1960s but more than 40 yr-1
in the 1990s (Miller et al., 2000). Hurricanes' strong winds and
heavy rains cause injury, death, and psychological disorders (Logue et al.,
1979; Patz et al., 2000). A total of 20-30% of adults who lived
through Hurricane Andrew showed evidence of PTSD at 6 months and 2 years after
the event (Norris et al., 1999).
15.2.4.1.2.4. Ice Storms
Milder winter temperatures will decrease heavy snowstorms but could cause an
increase in freezing rain if average daily temperatures fluctuate about the
freezing point. It is difficult to predict where ice storms will occur and identify
vulnerable populations. The ice storm of January 1998 (see Section
15.3.2.6) left 45 people dead and nearly 5 million people without heat or
electricity in Ontario, Quebec, and New York (CDC, 1998; Francis and Hengeveld,
1998; Kerry et al., 1999). The storm had a huge impact on medical services
and human health. Doctors' offices were forced to close, and a large number
of surgeries were cancelled (Blair, 1998; Hamilton, 1998). One urban emergency
department reported 327 injuries resulting from falls in a group of 257 patients
(Smith et al., 1998b).
15.2.4.1.2.5. Tornadoes
Although some evidence is available regarding increases in the intensity and
frequency of some extreme weather events, it is not yet clear how tornadoes
will be affected. The tornado of July 31, 1987, in Edmonton, Alberta, killed
27 people and injured 253 (Etkin et al., 1998). Trends in the United
States appear to show a decreasing number of deaths since the 1950s, although
data on the number of events causing deaths do not show a trend (Kunkel et
al., 1999). Godleski (1997) reports that persons who endure tornadoes often
experience a variety of stress responses, including depression, acute and post-traumatic
stress disorders, substance abuse, anxiety, and somatization.
|