Description and assessment of mitigation technologies and practices, options, potentials and costs

Transport is distinguished from other energy-using sectors by its predominant reliance on a single fossil resource and by the infeasibility of capturing carbon emissions from transport vehicles with any known technologies. It is also important to view GHG-emission reductions in conjunction with air pollution, congestion and energy security (oil import) problems. Solutions therefore have to try to optimize improvement of transportation problems as a whole, not just GHG emissions [5.5.4].

There have been significant developments in mitigation technologies since the Third Assessment Report (TAR), and significant research, development and demonstration programmes on hydrogen-powered fuel-cell vehicles have been launched around the globe. In addition, there are still many opportunities for improvement of conventional technologies. Biofuels continue to be important in certain markets and have much greater potential for the future. With regard to non-CO₂ emissions, vehicle air-conditioning systems based on low GWP refrigerants have been developed [5.3].

Road traffic: efficient technologies and alternative fuels

Since the TAR, the energy efficiency of road vehicles has improved by the market success of cleaner directed-injection turbocharged (TDI) diesels and the continued market penetration of many incremental efficiency technologies; hybrid vehicles have also played a role, though their market penetration is currently small. Further technological advances are expected for hybrid vehicles and TDI diesel engines. A combination of these with other technologies, including materials substitution, reduced aerodynamic drag, reduced rolling resistance, reduced engine friction and pumping losses, has the potential to approximately double the fuel economy of ‘new’ light-duty vehicles by 2030, thereby roughly halving carbon emissions per vehicle mile travelled (note that this is only for a new car and not the fleet average) (medium agreement, medium evidence) [5.3.1].

Biofuels have the potential to replace a substantial part, but not all, petroleum use by transport. A recent IEA report estimated that the share of biofuels could increase to about 10% by 2030 at costs of 25 US$/tCO₂-eq, which includes a small contribution from biofuels from cellulosic biomass. The potential strongly depends on production efficiency, the development of advanced techniques such as conversion of cellulose by enzymatic processes or by gasification and synthesis, costs, and competition with other uses of land. Currently the cost and performance of ethanol in terms of CO₂ emissions avoided is unfavourable, except for production from sugarcane in low-wage countries (Figure TS.16) (medium agreement, medium evidence) [5.3.1].

Figure TS.16: Comparison between current and future biofuel production costs versus gasoline and diesel ex-refinery (FOB) prices for a range of crude oil prices [Figure 5.9].

Note: prices exclude taxes.

The economic and market potential of hydrogen vehicles remains uncertain. Electric vehicles with high efficiency (more than 90%), but low driving range and short battery life have a limited market penetration. For both options, the emissions are determined by the production of hydrogen and electricity. If hydrogen is produced from coal or gas with CCS (currently the cheapest way) or from biomass, solar, nuclear or wind energy, well-to-wheel carbon emissions could be nearly eliminated. Further technological advances and/or cost reductions would be required in fuel-cells, hydrogen storage, hydrogen or electricity production with low- or zero-carbon emissions, and batteries (high agreement, medium evidence) [5.3.1].

The total mitigation potential in 2030 of the energy-efficiency options applied to light duty vehicles would be around 0.7–0.8 GtCO₂-eq in 2030 at costs lower than 100 US$/tCO₂. Data are not sufficient to provide a similar estimate for heavy-duty vehicles. The use of current and advanced biofuels, as mentioned above, would give an additional reduction potential of another 600–1500 MtCO₂-eq in 2030 at costs lower than 25 US$/tCO₂ (low agreement, limited evidence) [5.4.2].

A critical threat to the potential for future reduction of CO₂ emissions from use of fuel economy technologies is that they can be used to increase vehicle power and size rather than to improve the overall fuel economy and reduce carbon emissions. The preference of the market for power and size has consumed much of the potential for GHG mitigation reduction achieved over the past two decades. If this trend continues, it will significantly diminish the GHG mitigation potential of the advanced technologies described above (high agreement, much evidence) [5.2; 5.3].

Air traffic

The fuel efficiency of civil aviation can be improved by a variety of means including technology, operation and management of air traffic. Technology developments might offer a 20% improvement in fuel efficiency over 1997 levels by 2015, with a 40–50% improvement likely by 2050. As civil aviation continues to grow at around 5% each year, such improvements are unlikely to keep carbon emissions from global air travel from increasing. The introduction of biofuels could mitigate some of aviation’s carbon emissions, if biofuels can be developed to meet the demanding specifications of the aviation industry, although both the costs of such fuels and the emissions from their production process are uncertain at this time (medium agreement, medium evidence) [5.3.3].

Aircraft operations can be optimized for energy use (with minimum CO₂ emissions) by minimizing taxiing time, flying at optimal cruise altitudes, flying minimum-distance great-circle routes, and minimizing holding and stacking around airports. The GHG-reduction potential of such strategies has been estimated at 6–12%. More recently, researchers have begun to address the potential for minimizing the total climate impact of aircraft operations, including ozone impacts, contrails and nitrogen oxides emissions. The mitigation potential in 2030 for aviation is 280 MtCO₂/yr at costs <100 US$/tCO₂ (medium agreement, medium evidence) [5.4.2].

Marine transport

Since the TAR, an International Maritime Organization (IMO) assessment found that a combination of technical measures could reduce carbon emissions by 4–20% in older ships and 5–30% in new ships by applying state-of-the-art knowledge, such as hull and propeller design and maintenance. However, due to the long lifetime of engines, it will take decades before measures on existing ships are implemented on a significant scale. The short-term potential for operational measures, including route-planning and speed reduction, ranged from 1–40%. The study estimated a maximum reduction of emissions of the world fleet of about 18% by 2010 and 28% by 2020, when all measures were to be implemented. The data do not allow an estimate of an absolute mitigation potential figure and the mitigation potential is not expected to be sufficient to offset the growth in shipping activity over the same period (medium agreement, medium evidence) [5.3.4].

Rail transport

The main opportunities for mitigating GHG emissions associated with rail transport are improving aerodynamics, reduction of train weight, introducing regenerative braking and on-board energy storage and, of course, mitigating the GHG emissions from electricity generation. There are no estimates available of total mitigation potential and costs [5.3.2].

Modal shifts and public transport

Providing public transports systems and their related infrastructure and promoting non-motorized transport can contribute to GHG mitigation. However, local conditions determine how much transport can be shifted to less energy-intensive modes. Occupancy rates and the primary energy sources of the transport modes further determine the mitigation potential [5.3.1].

The energy requirements of urban transport are strongly influenced by the density and spatial structure of the built environment, as well as by the location, extent and nature of the transport infrastructure. Large-capacity buses, light-rail transit and metro or suburban rail are increasingly being used for the expansion of public transport. Bus Rapid Transit systems have relatively low capital and operational costs, but it is uncertain if they can be implemented in developing countries with the same success as in South America. If the share of buses in passenger transport were to increase by 5–10%, then CO₂ emissions would fall by 4-9% at costs in the order of US$ 60-70/tCO₂ [5.3.1].

More than 30% of the trips made by cars in Europe are for less than 3 km and 50% for less than 5 km. Although the figures may differ for other continents, there is potential for mitigation by shifting from cars to non-motorized transport (walking and cycling), or preventing a growth of car transport at the expense of non-motorized transport. Mitigation potentials are highly dependent on local conditions, but there are substantial co-benefits in terms of air quality, congestion and road safety (high agreement, much evidence) [5.3.1].

Overall mitigation potential in the transport sector

The overall potential and cost for CO₂ mitigation can only be partially estimated due to lack of data for heavy-duty vehicles, rail transport, shipping and modal split change/ public transport promotion. The total economic potential for improved efficiency of light-duty vehicles and aeroplanes and substituting biofuels for conventional fossil fuels, for a carbon price up to 100 US$/tCO₂-eq, is estimated to be about 1600–2550 MtCO_2. This is an underestimate of potential for mitigation in the transport sector (high agreement, medium evidence) [5.4.2].