11.4.2 Programmes and Policies to Encourage Technology Transfer
Adaptation
New mechanisms based on existing technology transfer trends. Adaptation
to climate variability and change can be autonomous or planned. Planned adaptation,
when it concerns transfer, requires strategic actions, based on an awareness
that climate is changing and that action is needed to better respond to such
change. In spite of the current uncertainty, a range of adaptation options can
be employed to increase the flexibility and adaptability of vulnerable systems,
and reverse trends that increase vulnerability. Many technologies that can be
used to adapt to climate change are already in use in some places. In order
to extend them, technology needs and technology transfer mechanisms should be
more fully assessed and reported to increase the role of technology transfer
in climate adaptation (IPCC Workshop, 1998).
The transferred technology will focus on key issues. Food security in the 21st
century is a major concern of every country. Changes in temperature and precipitation
levels may impose a negative impact on that security, especially for the arid
regions where water resources are limited and drought is the major risk facing
agricultural production. Development, introduction, and adoption of technologies
and management systems that enhance water use efficiency represent high priorities.
The design of technologies and institutions to complete a successful technology
transfer will become increasingly important. During the next century water resources
will become an increasingly serious constraint on agricultural production. Irrigation
is already playing a critically important role in agricultural production for
many countries. See Box 11.1. Weather information,
a soft technology, can be very important for managers and producers. In the
USA, there are excellent examples of the use of this technology( See Box
11.2).
| Box 11.1 Irrigation Technology Transfer within
a Country |
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The diffusion of irrigation technologies within a country facing water
shortage problems can increase that country's adaptability to climate
change. The biggest barrier for irrigation technology transfer within
a country may be the shortage of financial capital. Usually, the adoption
of new technologies imposes additional costs when compared to conventional
practices. Technology transfer will be more difficult where the recipients,
who are usually farmers, cannot afford the additional costs. Subsidised
inputs from governments or international organisations can accelerate
technology transfer in these situations.
The second barrier occurs when farmers are not knowledgeable enough to
select the most suitable combination of irrigation technology, equipment,
crop varieties, and management techniques to obtain the maximum returns
in their situation. Technical assistance, such as educational programmes,
training, and design aids from the government and other related organisations
can help to overcome this obstacle (Ribaudo, 1997).
The third barrier encountered by irrigation technology transfer may result
from public attitudes toward the technologies involved. In some regions,
the necessity of irrigation to increase agricultural productivity and
improve the adaptability of agricultural production to climate change
has not been recognised by local governments and farmers. Education, training,
demonstration projects and advertising can help create a more positive
public attitude toward irrigation, thus eliminating this barrier.
New irrigation technologies require higher levels of management. Limited
management knowledge and experience may prevent farmers from realising
maximum profits from introduced irrigation technologies. This may slow
the adoption of the introduced technologies and require further technology
transfer interventions. This barrier can be addressed by training farmers
in new irrigation management techniques as an integral part of the planning
and installation of new systems, so that proper management is integrated
into the initial technology adoption process.
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| Box 11.2 Furnishing Weather Measurements to Assist
in Agricultural Decision Making |
| An automated weather data network (AWDN) was established in Nebraska,
USA, in 1981. This network, and associated user interfaces, provides timely
access to weather variables known to cause variations in agricultural production
(Neue and Boonjawat, 1998).
The role of the government in this case is both to support a weather
data collection and dissemination system, and to educate potential climate
data users from the various sectors of the economy.
End-user recipients receive information that allows them to reduce their
operating costs while maintaining optimal production. This increases net
profit while conserving water resources and the energy involved in water
delivery to the fields. Technology recipients receive the tools needed
to provide timely information that is vital to decision processes in agriculture.
Applications programmes require user friendly interfaces with on-line
help. In addition, education is a vital link in the chain from monitoring
to application of data. The U.S. system has been replicated in Mexico,
Brazil, and India. National and international organisations are recommended
to adopt policies that promote near-real time monitoring efforts, and
interagency committees should coordinate the needs for near-real time
data.
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Commodity programmes.
Commodity programmes that are crafted with care can assist the production of
crops or crop varieties that have been bred for wider climate adaptation. Introduction
of new varieties can be assisted by information provided by commodity programmes.
Trade policies.
Trade is able to play a significant adaptive role in technology transfer, allowing
farmers in countries less severely affected by climate change to profit by selling
products to consumers in the more severely affected regions. In this way, markets
act to pool the risk of locally severe effects. Even with highly uncertain scenarios,
regionally differentiated effects are highly likely. Thus, continued strengthening
of agriculture with GATT provides important flexibility for adapting to climate
change (Reilly, 1995).
Mitigation
Mitigation options exist, but few have been widely adopted or transferred
for reasons that are often of a social rather than a technical nature, and it
is extremely difficult to gain a sense of their cumulative potential for improving
productivity and sustainable natural resource management. For example, the conversion
of low intensity agricultural systems to forest has been used as a method for
absorbing CO2, but there are few similar land
use change or management practices with a demonstrated impact on CH4
or N2O emissions. In the case of N2O,
it is generally accepted that measures which improve the efficiency of nitrogen
fertiliser applications may be of value in reducing emissions, but these measures
are often difficult to adopt for farmers and their effectiveness is yet to be
demonstrated, thus adversely influencing successful technology transfer.
Adoption subsidies.
Although farmers have been able to significantly reduce nitrogen use in certain
cases, changes in nitrogen use and profitability of technology adoption are
highly location specific. More widespread adoption of major changes in management
practices may require considerably larger subsidies than are currently available.
Adoption subsidies need to be very carefully specified, time limited, targeted
and transparent. They need to be monitored and evaluated, and adapted to changing
circumstances. See Box 11.3.
| Box 11.3 Encourage Efficient Use of Nitrogen Fertilisers
|
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The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) administers programmes providing
education and technical and financial assistance to encourage more efficient
use of nitrogen to control water pollution. Although control of GHG emissions
is not an explicit goal, these programmes can reduce N2O
emissions and may be considered to be part of a no-regrets strategy. Stakeholders
include farmers as well as federal, state and local environmental and
water resource management agencies.
Barriers preventing technology transfer include: lack of producer familiarity
with new practices, lack of knowledge on how to integrate new practices
into current management systems, need for additional educational support
to interpret soil testing data, and lower profitability of some resource-conserving
practices. Cost-sharing (adoption subsidies) could be used to overcome
adoption barriers. Local environmental conditions play a greater role
in the adoption of resource-conserving practices than do the existence
of demonstration projects.
Benefits include reduced input costs and a potential for reducing N2O
emission.
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Compliance programmes.
Compliance programmes have been successfully implemented in the USA. Such programmes,
including transferred mitigation technology, require farmers to adopt certain
approved production or land use practices in order to receive income support
payments and other USDA programme benefits (Osborn, 1997a). The Conservation
Compliance Program encourages the adoption of conservation cropping sequences,
crop residue use and conservation tillage on highly erodible land. Similar programmes
have been adopted in EU member states in recent years.
Demonstration projects.
Technical opportunities exist to improve animal feed quality and can be applied
both on natural pastures and in farming systems. Fortunately, improved feed
quality results in the reduction of GHG (methane) emissions from ruminant animals.
Box 11.4 describes a demonstration project and its
results in technology transfer.
| Box 11.4 The Programme of Using Treated Straw
as Cattle Feed in China |
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Straw ammoniation technology can not only increase digestibility of animal
feed and feed intake but also reduce 25-75 per cent of methane emissions
per unit of animal produce-meat, milk, work, etc. (Sollod and Walters,
1992). This practice, which upgrades straw quality, can increase the digestibility
of animal feed and lead to an increase of animal productivity.
Beef and milk production has been increased 230.7% and 38.7% in the past
5 years in China respectively, partly because of the transfer of straw
ammoniation technology. The saved feed grain was 19.80 million tonnes
in 1995. It can also increase organic fertiliser used and reduce biomass
burning in crop lands.
The China State Council issued a document in 1992 about utilising crop
straw to develop livestock in the farming region. There were a series
of policies and measures to be adopted by different levels of governments
and related departments to support the programme. One hundred and nineteen
demonstration counties had been selected for activities that lasted until
1995.
Both the farmers and the government benefited from this programme.
The transfer of this technology is limited by the incremental investment
(US$ 25 per ton) and by the lack of urea. Subsidisation, credit and assistance
may be needed to overcome these financial barriers.
The national network is still weak with respect to animal feeding and
nutritional management. Therefore, training should be given to livestock
extension agents in the basics of practical ruminant nutrition, in feeding
practices, and in the introduction of and on-farm support for key technologies.
This technology was selected to be disseminated nationwide as one of
ten key technologies in 1989. The technology of using straw as cattle
feed was placed in the agricultural development programme in 1992. The
government allocated special funds (US$ 1.2 million) to establish 10 demonstration
counties at the beginning, after which the funds increased rapidly to
reach US$ 2.5 and 4.3 million in 1993 and 1994, respectively.
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An interesting example of improved technology through technology transfer to
increase feed supplies is urea treatment, which improves the palatability and
digestibility of straw in China, resulting in a reduction of the relative methane
emissions from animals. The amount of straw treated has increased from almost
0 tonnes in 1995 to 4 million tonnes in 1999, and is projected to reach 30 million
tonnes by 2000 (Hongmin et al., 1996; Tingshang, 1995).
Education/technical assistance.
Efforts in the areas of information technology and management are becoming increasingly
important for in order to establish growth in crop and animal productivity in
the face of climate change. Education programmes for youth, technical advisors,
and technology recipients are important in improving technology transfer.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s the World Bank devoted very substantial
resources to the support of an intensive training and visit (T&V) system
of delivering information about practices and technology to farmers. The system
involved a highly regimented schedule in which the field level worker is involved
one day each week in intensive training about the information that he or she
must convey to farmers (Benor and Harrison, 1977). New T&V programmes supported
by international organisations for adaptation and mitigation of climate change
are desirable.
Communication/outreach activities for technology transfer.
Modern modes of extension delivery could greatly reduce traditional face-to-face
extension and improve the mobility of extension agents. Radio, television and
video display can spread messages suitable for a general audience and leave
more time for the agent to concentrate on individual farmers' needs. These methods
are common practice in developed countries, and have gained acceptance in developing
countries as, for example, agricultural information via state television in
India and Brazil; videotaped messages in Brazil, Honduras, Mexico, Paraguay
and Peru; and satellite systems for spreading agricultural information over
large areas in Indonesia, the Philippines and West Africa. Public information
programmes aimed at demonstrating the benefits of new technologies may need
to be coupled with cost-sharing to overcome barriers. In some cases, a technology
information unit can be very useful to stimulate such public information programmes
for technology transfer within a country (see Box 11.5).
| Box 11.5 Conservation Technology Information
Center |
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The Conservation Technology Information Center (CTIC) was created in
the United States by conservation organisations, universities, and private
companies in the early 1980s. It was designed to gather and disseminate
information to speed the adoption of conservation tillage technologies
among American farmers. The Center's goal was to share information, and
two early initiatives were launched to establish that capacity: carrying
a national survey of tillage practices since 1982, and creating a national
network of scientists and scientific information that could serve as a
referral service.
Yield reduction and increased risk of failure were the most critical barrier
for conservation tillage. Early field trials were needed on thousands
of widely diverse soil and crop combinations to demonstrate that these
risks could be managed. The CTIC encouraged conservation districts, USDA-SCS,
and universities to conduct such trials, to hold field days for farmers
and to communicate the results widely. The benefits to farmers include
a reduction in labour, machine time, fuel, and associated costs. Yields
are, in general, high enough to make net profits higher due to reduced
cost.
Technology transfer that involves a complex system of new crop varieties,
new machines, new methods, and unknown risks is a slow process that demands
a long-term commitment to research, education, and adaptation. Lingering
threats of increased federal regulation of farm practices to address water
pollution from cropland erosion was a reason for farm businesses and leaders
to promote new systems that could achieve water quality goals voluntarily.
The CTIC process can be adopted where both public and private benefits
are adequate enough to encourage a long-term commitment. It requires a
situation where communication and education hold a major key to technology
transfer. It also requires a situation where communications are adequate
enough to allow producers to easily reach the information centre.
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Special considerations for agricultural technology transfer
Agriculture, in contrast to many other economic activities, is diffuse across
diverse landscapes. Millions of individual decision-makers have to be motivated
in order for climate change adaptation or mitigation technology to be transferred
and adopted. Technology transfer depends on having good new technology that
can provide concrete benefits to farmers and which yields those benefits relatively
quickly. The technology also has to fit within the existing social and economic
system.
Pilot projects and demonstration projects represent an especially cost effective
approach. However, in order to meet the criteria for technology transfer to
farmers, given that the impacts from climate change are slowly cumulative, there
will have to be a prompt productivity pay-off to the farmer from the activity.
The combination of the gradual accumulation of negative impacts that may come
from climate change and the need for almost immediate pay-off required by farmers
for technology transfer results in the requirement for subsidies or incentives
from the public sector. The public costs of technology transfer to agriculture
- especially in mitigation where there may not be clear benefit to the farmer
from the new technology or activity - will be high.
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