6.4.8 Domestic hot water

Options to reduce fossil or electrical energy used to produce hot water include (i) use of water saving fixtures, more water-efficient washing machines, cold-water washing and (if used at all) more water-efficient dishwashers (50% typical savings); (ii) use of more efficient and better insulated water heaters or integrated space and hot-water heaters (10–20% savings); (iii) use of tankless (condensing or non-condensing) water heaters, located close to the points of use, to eliminate standby and greatly reduce distribution heat losses (up to 30% savings, depending on the magnitude of standby and distribution losses with centralized tanks); (v) recovery of heat from warm waste water; (vi) use of air-source or exhaust-air heat pumps; and (vii) use of solar thermal water heaters (providing 50–90% of annual hot-water needs, depending on climate). The integrated effect of all of these measures can frequently reach a 90% savings. Heat pumps using CO₂ as a working fluid are an attractive alternative to electric-resistance hot water heaters, with a COP of up to 4.2–4.9 (Saikawa et al., 2001; Yanagihara, 2006).

6.4.9 Lighting systems

Lighting energy use can be reduced by 75 to 90% compared to conventional practice through (i) use of daylighting with occupancy and daylight sensors to dim and switch off electric lighting; (ii) use of the most efficient lighting devices available; and (iii) use of such measures as ambient/task lighting.