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11. Changes in Sea Level
Contents
Executive Summary
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Factors Contributing to Sea Level Change
11.2.1 Ocean Processes
11.2.1.1 Observational estimates of ocean warming
and ocean thermal expansion
11.2.1.2 Models of thermal expansion
11.2.2 Glaciers and Ice Caps
11.2.2.1 Mass balance studies
11.2.2.2 Sensitivity to temperature change
11.2.2.3 Sensitivity to precipitation change
11.2.2.4 Evolution of area
11.2.3 Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets
11.2.3.1 Mass balance studies
11.2.3.2 Direct monitoring of surface elevation changes
11.2.3.3 Numerical modelling
11.2.3.4 Sensitivity to climatic change
11.2.4 Interaction of Ice Sheets, Sea Level and the Solid
Earth
11.2.4.1 Eustasy, isostasy and glacial-interglacial
cycles
11.2.4.2 Earth rotation constraints on recent sea level
rise
11.2.5 Surface and Ground Water Storage and Permafrost
11.2.6 Tectonic Land Movements
11.2.7 Atmospheric Pressure
11.3 Past Sea Level Changes
11.3.1 Global Average Sea Level over the Last 6,000
Years
11.3.2 Mean Sea Level Changes over the Past 100 to 200 Years
11.3.2.1 Mean sea level trends
11.3.2.2 Long-term mean sea level accelerations
11.3.2.3 Mean sea level change from satellite altimeter
observations
11.3.3 Changes in Extreme Sea Levels: Storm Surges and Waves
11.4 Can 20th Century Sea Level Changes be Explained?
11.5 Future Sea Level Changes
11.5.1 Global Average Sea Level Change 1990 to 2100
11.5.1.1 Projections for a single scenario based on
a range of AOGCMs
11.5.1.2 Projections for SRES scenarios
11.5.2 Regional Sea Level Change
11.5.3 Implications for Coastal Regions
11.5.3.1 Mean sea level
11.5.3.2 Extremes of sea level: storm-surges and waves
11.5.4 Longer Term Changes
11.5.4.1 Thermal expansion
11.5.4.2 Glaciers and ice caps
11.5.4.3 Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets
11.6 Reducing the Uncertainties in Future Estimates of Sea
Level Change
11.6.1 Observations of Current Rates of Global- averaged
and Regional Sea Level Change
11.6.2 Ocean Processes
11.6.3 Glaciers and Ice Caps
11.6.4 Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets
11.6.5 Surface and Ground Water Storage
11.6.6 Summary
Appendix 11.1 : Methods for Projections of Global-average
Sea Level Rise
References
Co-ordinating Lead Authors
J.A. Church, J.M. Gregory
Lead Authors
P. Huybrechts, M. Kuhn, K. Lambeck, M.T. Nhuan, D. Qin, P.L. Woodworth
Contributing Authors
O.A. Anisimov, F.O. Bryan, A. Cazenave, K.W. Dixon, B.B. Fitzharris, G.M. Flato,
A.Ganopolski, V. Gornitz, J.A. Lowe, A. Noda, J.M. Oberhuber, S.P. O’Farrell,
A. Ohmura, M. Oppenheimer, W.R. Peltier, S.C.B. Raper, C. Ritz, G.L. Russell,
E. Schlosser, C.K. Shum, T.F. Stocker, R.J. Stouffer, R.S.W. van de Wal, R.
Voss, E.C. Wiebe, M. Wild, D.J. Wingham, H.J. Zwally
Review Editors
B.C. Douglas, A. Ramirez
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